Shinto

Shinto (神道 Shintō), also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous religion of Japan and the people of Japan. It is defined as an action-centered religion, focused on ritual practices to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past. Founded in 660 BC according to Japanese mythology, Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century.

Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified “Shinto religion”, but rather to a collection of native beliefs and mythology. Shinto today is a term that applies to the religion of public shrines devoted to the worship of a multitude of gods (kami), suited to various purposes such as war memorials and harvest festivals, and applies as well to various sectarian organizations. Practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods. The word Shinto (“way of the gods”) was adopted, originally as Shindo, from the written Chinese Shendao (神道, pinyin: shén dào), combining two kanji: “shin” (神), meaning “spirit” or kami; and “tō” (道), meaning a philosophical path or study (from the Chinese word dào). The oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century. Kami are defined in English as “spirits”, “essences” or “gods”, referring to the energy generating the phenomena. Since Japanese language doesn’t distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacredessence, that manifests in multiple forms: rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami. Kami and people are not separate; they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, yet only a small percentage of these identify themselves as “Shintoists” in surveys. This is due to the fact that “Shinto” has different meanings in Japan: most of the Japanese attend Shinto shrines and beseech kami without belonging to an institutional “Shinto” religion, and since there are no formal rituals to become a member of folk “Shinto”, “Shinto membership” is often estimated counting those who join organised Shinto sects. Shinto has 100,000 shrines and 20,000 priests in the country. According to Inoue (2003):

In modern scholarship, the term is often used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals and practices. In these contexts, “Shinto” takes on the meaning of “Japan’s traditional religion”, as opposed to foreign religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and so forth.

Types of Shinto

Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories:

• Shrine Shinto (神社神道 Jinja-Shintō), the main tradition of Shinto, has always been a part of Japan’s history. It consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples; in the Meiji Restoration they were made independent systematised institutions. The successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80,000 shrines nationwide.
• Imperial Household Shinto (皇室神道 Kōshitsu-Shintō) are the religious rites performed exclusively by the imperial family at the three shrines on the imperial grounds, including the Ancestral Spirits Sanctuary (Kōrei-den) and the Sanctuary of the Kami (Shin-den).
• Folk Shinto (民俗神道 Minzoku-Shintō) includes the numerous but fragmented folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, andshamanic healing. Some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions.
• Sect Shinto (教派神道 Kyōha-Shintō) is a legal designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period. The basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously, they can identify a founder, a formal set of teachings and even sacred scriptures. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings: pure Shinto sects (Shinto Taikyo, Shinrikyo and Izumo Oyashirokyo), Confucian sects (Shinto Shusei-ha and Taiseikyo), mountain worship sects (Jikkokyo, Fusokyo and Mitakekyo or Ontakekyo), purification sects (Shinshukyo and Misogikyo), and faith-healing sects (Kurozumikyo, Konkokyo and its branching Omotokyo, and Tenrikyo).
• Koshintō (古神道 ko-shintō), literally “Old Shinto”, is a reconstructed “Shinto from before the time of Buddhism”, today based on Ainu religion and Ryukyuan practices. It continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane.

Many other sects and schools can be distinguished. Faction Shinto (宗派神道 Shūha-Shintō) is a grouping of Japanese new religions developed since the second half of the 20th century that have significantly departed from traditional Shinto and are not always regarded as part of it.

Theology and cosmology

Kami

Kami or shin (神) is defined in English as “god”, “spirit”, “spiritual essence”, all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing. Since Japanese language doesn’t distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms: rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami. Kami and people exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity. Shinto gods are collectively called yaoyorozu no kami (八百万の神), an expression literally meaning “eight million kami”, but interpreted as meaning “myriad”, although it can be translated as “many Kami”. There is a phonetic variation, kamu, and a similar word in Ainu language, kamui. An analogous word is mi-koto. Kami refers particularly to the power of phenomena that inspire a sense of wonder and awe in the beholder (the sacred), testifying the divinity of such a phenomenon. It is comparable to what Rudolf Otto described as the mysterium tremendum and fascinans. The kami reside in all things, but certain objects and places are designated for the interface of people and kami: yorishiro, shintai, shrines, and kamidana. There are natural places considered to have an unusually sacred spirit about them, and are objects of worship. They are frequently mountains, trees, unusual rocks, rivers, waterfalls, and other natural things. In most cases they are on or near a shrine grounds. The shrine is a building in which the kami is enshrined (housed). It is a sacred space, creating a separation from the “ordinary” world. The kamidana is a household shrine that acts as a substitute for a large shrine on a daily basis. In each case the object of worship is considered a sacred space inside which the kami spirit actually dwells, being treated with the utmost respect.

Kannagara

In Shinto kannagara, meaning “way [path] of [expression] of the kami“, refers to the law of the natural order. It is the sense of the terms michi or to, “way”, in the terms “kami-no-michi” or “Shinto”. Those who understand kannagara know the divine, the human, and how people should live. From this knowledge stems the ethical dimension of Shinto, focusing on sincerity (makoto), honesty (tadashii) and purity.

Amenominakanushi

According to the Kojiki,  Amenominakanushi (天御中主 “All-Father of the Originating Hub”, or 天之御中主神 “Heavenly Ancestral God of the Originating Heart of the Universe”) is the first kami, and the concept of the source of the universe according to theologies. In mythology he is described as a “god who came into being alone” (hitorigami), the first of the zōka sanshin (“three kami of creation”), and one of the five kotoamatsukami (“distinguished heavenly gods”). Amenominakanushi has been considered a concept developed under the influence of Chinese thought. With the flourishing of kokugaku the concept was studied by scholars. The theologianHirata Atsutane identified Amenominakanushi as the spirit of the North Star, master of the seven stars of the Big Dipper. The god was emphasised by the Daikyōin in the Meiji period, and worshiped by some Shinto sects. The god manifests in a duality, a male and a female function, respectively Takamimusubi and Kamimusubi.^[25] In other mythical accounts the originating kami is called Umashiashikabihikoji (“God of the Ashi [Reed]”) or Kuninotokotachi (the “God Founder of the Nation”), the latter used in the Nihon Shoki.^[26]

Creation of Japan

Izanami-no-Mikoto and Izanagi-no-Mikoto, by Kobayashi Eitaku, late 19th century.

The generation of the Japanese archipelago is expressed mythologically as the action of two gods: Izanagi (“He-who-invites”) and Izanami (“She-who-is-invited”). The interaction of these two principles begets the islands of Japan and a further group of kami. The events are described in the Kojiki as follows:

• Izanagi-no-Mikoto (male) and Izanami-no-Mikoto (female) were called by all the myriad gods and asked to help each other to create a new land which was to become Japan.
• They were given a spear with which they stirred the water, and when removed water dripped from the end, an island was created in the great nothingness.
• They lived on this island, and created a palace and within was large pole.
• When they wished to bear offspring, they performed a ritual each rounding a pole, male to the left and female to the right, the female greeting the male first.
• They had two children (islands) which turned out badly and they cast them out. They decided that the ritual had been done incorrectly the first time.
• They repeated the ritual but according to the correct laws of nature, the male spoke first.
• They then gave birth to the eight perfect islands of the Japanese archipelago.
• After the islands, they gave birth to the other Kami, Izanami-no-Mikoto dies and Izanagi-no-Mikoto tries to revive her.
• His attempts to deny the laws of life and death have bad consequences.

In the myth, the birth of the god of fire (Kagu-Tsuchi) causes the death of Izanami, who descends into Yomi-no-kuni, the netherworld. Izanagi chases her there, but runs away when he finds the dead figure of his spouse. As he returns to the land of the living, Amaterasu (the sun goddess) is born from his left eye, Tsukiyomi (the moon deity) from his right eye, and Susanoo (the storm deity) is born from Izanagi’s nose.

Purity

Impurity

Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of ritual impurity that one should want cleansed for one’s own peace of mind and good fortune rather than because impurity is wrong. Wrong deeds are called “impurity” (穢れ kegare), which is opposed to “purity” (清め kiyome). Normal days are called “day” (ke), and festive days are called “sunny” or, simply, “good” (hare). Those who are killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold a grudge (怨み urami) (grudge) and become powerful and evil kami who seek revenge (aragami). Additionally, if anyone is injured on the grounds of a shrine, the area must be ritually purified.

Haraegushi (祓串) for purification

Purification

Purification rites called Harae are a vital part of Shinto. They are done on a daily, weekly, seasonal, lunar, and annual basis. These rituals are the lifeblood of the practice of Shinto. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. New buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest called kannushi (神主) during the groundbreaking ceremony (Jichinsai 地鎮祭), and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. Moreover, many Japanese businesses built outside Japan have had ceremonies performed by a Shinto priest, with occasionally an annual visitation by the priest to re-purify.

Afterlife

It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death mostly due to the negative Japanese conception of the afterlife and death as well as Buddhism’s historical monopoly on funeral rites. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This yomi is very close to the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Okuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ojin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death. Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a believer. Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local Shinto shrine adds the child’s name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her a “family child” (氏子 ujiko). After death an ujiko becomes a “family spirit”, or “family kami” (氏神 ujigami). One may choose to have one’s name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. This is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of being welcomed by the local kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death.

Shrines

The principal worship of kami is done at public shrines or worship at small home shrines called kamidana (神棚, lit. “god-shelf”). The public shrine is a building or place that functions as a conduit for kami. A fewer number of shrines are also natural places called mori. The most common of the mori are sacred groves of trees, or mountains, or waterfalls. All shrines are open to the public at some times or throughout the year. While many of the public shrines are elaborate structures, all are characteristic Japanese architectural styles of different periods depending on their age. Shrines are fronted by a distinctive Japanese gate (鳥居, torii) made of two uprights and two crossbars denoting the separation between common space and sacred space. Thetorii have 20 styles and matching buildings based on the enshrined kami and lineage. There are a number of symbolic and real barriers that exist between the normal world and the shrine grounds including: statues of protection, gates, fences, ropes, and other delineations of ordinary to sacred space. Usually there will be only one or sometimes two approaches to the Shrine for the public and all will have the toriiover the way. In shrine compounds, there are a haiden (拝殿) or public hall of worship, heiden (幣殿) or hall of offerings and the honden (本殿) or the main hall. The innermost precinct of the grounds is the honden or worship hall, which is entered only by the high priest, or worshippers on certain occasions. The honden houses the symbol of the enshrined kami. The heart of the shrine is periodic rituals, spiritual events in parishioners’ lives, and festivals. All of this is organized by priests who are both spiritual conduits and administrators. Shrines are private institutions, and are supported financially by the congregation and visitors. Some shrines may have festivals that attract hundreds of thousands, especially in the New Year season.

Source Texts: Shinto Scriptures

 1) –  THE KOJIKI – [B.H. Chamberlain, translator 1882]

The Kojiki (古事記, “Record of Ancient Matters”) is the oldest extant chronicle in Japan, dating from the early 8th century (711–712) and composed by Ōno Yasumaro at the request of Empress Gemmei. The Kojiki is a collection of myths concerning the origin of the four home islands of Japan, and the Kami. Along with the Nihon Shoki, the myths contained in the Kojiki are part of the inspiration behind Shinto practices and myths, including the misogi purification ritual

2) – The Nihongi (excerpts), translated by W.G. Ashton, 1896. 

 –  Nihongi Part 1   –  Nihongi Part 2   –  Nihongi Part 3    – Nihongi Part 4 

The Nihon Shoki (日本書紀), sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. The book is also called the Nihongi (日本紀 lit. Japanese Chronicles). It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical record of ancient Japan.